In formed planets, complex life should reside wherever such life is possible and in cited works I do hypothesize multiple gravitational maxima and thus potential zones of habitability in the upper mantle. On surface, energy for this life may be mainly provided by the host star, otherwise it may come from gravitational compression (latent heat of fusion), tidal interactions (mainly with the Moon and the Sun, in case of Earth) and residual heat/radioactivity. Elsewhere, I also hypothesize other, periodic, sources of energy, correlated with asteroid impacts and oscillation of large scale gravitons. Most heat should be stored in the core (more in the liquid part if present). During slow evolution it is dissipated upwards through mantle convection (considered to drive plate tectonics). Estimates of current Earth's mantle viscosity give 100 million years for completion of one overturn cycle. The energy transfer is periodically increased with mantle plumes, the strongest of which are probably correlated with major mass extinctions. There is no plate tectonics on current Mars (which should be common for fully formed planets) but that does not rule out convection, it is of lower energy and confined to deeper layers. Periodically, more energy could be reaching shallower layers. Radioactivity, as well, can provide energy for near-surface geothermal activity. This then provides energy for biological activity, which, given the abundance of water and metals, probably is present and at least periodically active near Mars' surface. In a living planet, most complex life probably should reside within the mantle layers. This, however, does not forbid the existence of simpler life on the surface or in the crust of developed planets as well. If conditions allow it, it would be surprising not to find the residue of surface life in some form. So far several processes indicating possible biological activity have been identified on Mars and studies have shown that even microbes from Earth have mechanisms to cope with harsh conditions on its surface. This life may have even been detected before, but there are still no unambiguous signals, which could only be attributed to life and not to processes of abiotic origin.
It is unclear to me, however, why, after all we've discovered about life on Earth, we need confirmation that the origin is not abiotic, rather than needing confirmation that it is not.
I consider that, at this point, anyone who does not believe in [the abundance of] extraterrestrial life must be a religious zealot.
Most, if not all, of the building blocks of DNA discovered in meteorites (and all have been discovered) probably should be interpreted as parts of DNA broken over time during travel in
space rather than something out of which DNA could be eventually synthesized over millions of years by a bunch of coincidences and miracles (which, of course, does not imply that
such synthesis does not happen).
At least some of de novo genes likely have extraterrestrial origin and horizontal gene transfer between planets should be taken into account, even though surface habitability may be shifted in time
between them.
There are microbes
discovered that prefer feeding on meteorites over earthly rocks.
There are big microbes in Earth's stratosphere for which
no known mechanism exists that could have ejected them to such heights.
Even now, we might be bombarded by microbes from space hidden in meteorites. Not all of them may contain microbes, but if at least some do, they are unlikely to differ much from those
on Earth. Therefore, what is considered to be local contamination, may not be contamination at all.
However, recent atmospheric measurements have revealed processes which I believe are likely to have a biological source.
Note that, in this context, biological source (life) is understood to represent what is in modern biology considered to be a living single-celled or multi-celled organism.
- Water molecules are broken through photolysis by UV radiation:
$\displaystyle 2H_2O + 4\gamma \rightarrow 4H^+ + 4e^- + O_2$ - Providing hydrogen for perchlorate reduction (by microbes):
$\displaystyle ClO_4^- + 2H^+ + 2e^- \rightarrow ClO_3^- + H_2O$ $\displaystyle ClO_3^- + 2H^+ + 2e^- \rightarrow ClO_2^- + H_2O$ $\displaystyle ClO_2^- \rightarrow Cl^- + O_2$
Note that a species of life already exists on Earth capable of surviving radiation on Mars. However, the problem for extremophiles on Mars' surface is not only radiation, but strong
oxidizers such as perchlorate salts and dry conditions.
For this reason, life is probably a bit deeper where oxidative stress is lower, although I do not exclude the possibility of even more extreme extremophiles with strong regeneration
capabilities - after all, life and its environment do co-evolve. Organization of microbes into biofilms may further increase their resilience.
No extinction is absolute and non-existence in particular space/time can be interpreted as a phase shift of life that previously existed, although change in scale is also possible. Phase shift can
be vertical (eg. life migrates to atmosphere or deeper into soil) or horizontal (eg. life migrates to another planet). A mechanism for both can be provided by asteroid bombardment.
Phase shift explains the presence of organisms on Earth optimized for much harsher environments than currently present on Earth - this includes not only radiation, but dryness, saltiness, high
pressure and CO2 levels.
Such extremophiles present on Earth may have migrated from Mars (and Venus) and are yet to evolve independently on Earth.
The key for survival in harsh conditions on Mars' surface layers is cell symbiosis, one which can ensure protein/DNA repair rate can balance the damage.
I find it extremely unlikely for a form of a symbiotic organism akin to Deinococcus radiodurans and Halococcus not to be present on Mars, although its existence may be vertically
shifted in space, as it is horizontally (from one planet to the other) for Deinococcus and Halococcus.
Note also that previously discovered
geysers and associated dark dune spots on Mars' south pole have some features difficult to explain without biological activity.
A simple solution is the presence of an electric field, such that the brine is positively polarized and [real] ground negatively. In that scenario the perchlorate reduction by microbes does not happen
at all (or, at least not on surface), but hydrogen (or, some of it) recombines in the soil where it may be used for methane production, without involving serpentinization (although, this too can
occur on Mars).
A recent study shows that perchlorates probably do not pose a big problem for microbes on Mars.
2021.11.12
Current research on organic electronics on Earth goes in favour of the hypothesis. Recently, biohybrid plants with electronic roots have been engineered. Therefore, a link between a common plant and hypothesized electric Mars' hair already exists. Note that theory of planetary neurogenesis does imply that evolution of life on Earth's surface is, qualitatively, not significantly different to that of Mars.
The effect of UV radiation on hair, especially in water, is negligible - and it regrows when damaged. Of course, the hair of homo.omega should be more advanced than ours,
possibly having a tree-like structure and could even be used as antennae for communication. These carbon fibres could be kilometres long and microscopic in width, at least on top, and could also serve as
an elevator for microorganisms.
The CO2 may be replenished in real crust by microbes (also providing a sink for O2 and methane):
Current research on organic electronics on Earth goes in favour of the hypothesis. Recently, biohybrid plants with electronic roots have been engineered. Therefore, a link between a common plant and hypothesized electric Mars' hair already exists. Note that theory of planetary neurogenesis does imply that evolution of life on Earth's surface is, qualitatively, not significantly different to that of Mars.
Fig. 1: Mars surface ecosystem model (not to scale)
Real crust acts as a virtual (img) core, providing heat for virtual (img) mantle and enabling liquid water at this layer.
Note that, in craters such as Gale, situation is somewhat different. The impact has ejected img surface material exposing real surface (crust), but something similar can still exist there.
Note also that the places of CO2 and CH4 generation might be somewhat different than depicted in Fig. 1, depending whether the conditions are aerobic or anaerobic.
Assuming ratio of crust to mantle is the same as on Earth one can calculate the thickness of the top layer on mars (img crust):
UPDATE:
More lakes have later been detected nearby.
Some, however, are not
convinced that any of these bodies are lakes of water, rather some other material (smectites), arguing that required salt and heat concentration for maintenance of liquid water is
implausible given what is currently known about Mars.
But what do we know about Mars?
I do know that we are constantly surprised by Mars (eg. no one was expecting recent volcanic activity on Mars, the problems of Insight and Perseverance with
ground digging/drilling, 10 times stronger
crustal magnetization than expected, etc.) and all other bodies of the Solar System (including Earth).
If Mars is still alive (according to my hypotheses, it should be), global crustal heating should not be surprising.
There are over a hundred of volcanoes under Antarctica and there are hundreds of subglacial lakes there. At the times Mars' surface is habitable, its south pole probably should not differ much from
current Earth's south pole.
It is still possible that detected bodies on Mars' south pole are not bodies of liquid water at this point, however, some of these should certainly be the locations of basins and drains used
during strong neurogenesis events. The drains might be closed with clay when unused, but if they are open or opening, the basins should contain liquids.
The presence of liquids could then be interpreted as a signal of upcoming strong neurogenesis events.
If these events are roughly synchronized between Earth and Mars, it is possible that adult neurogenesis is currently upcoming on Mars - while Earth's surface is decreasing habitability, Mars would
be increasing its surface habitability. Increasing volcanism and magnetism on Mars go in favour of the hypothesis (assuming we do not attribute strong magnetism to rocks magnetized billions
of years ago).
If Mars is indeed waking up, we should expect more, and increasing rate of, surprises.
2022.05.12
Analysis of rocks in Utopia Planitia shows liquid water existed there ≈700 million years ago (the age is, however, based on crater counting statistics).Regardless of the potential heat source, the in
situ observations manifest recent aqueous activities on Mars, suggesting that the cold and dry late Amazonian epoch may have been episodically punctuated by short-duration climatic warming
events that result in melting of ground ice at latitude less than 30°N.
Episodic habitability is exactly what is predicted by the hypothesis of adult neurogenesis, so this is another evidence in its favour.
Analysis of rocks in Utopia Planitia shows liquid water existed there ≈700 million years ago (the age is, however, based on crater counting statistics).
Episodic habitability is exactly what is predicted by the hypothesis of adult neurogenesis, so this is another evidence in its favour.
2022.10.10
In the new analysis, based on Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA) data, it was found that the most likely explanation for observed radar returns in Ultimi Scopuli area of the Mars' South Pole is the subglacial liquid water generated by local geothermal heating (src: press, pub, full-text). Mars is, thus, contrary to popular belief held so far, geothermally active. Another big surprise for orthodox science, another confirmation of my hypotheses.
In the new analysis, based on Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA) data, it was found that the most likely explanation for observed radar returns in Ultimi Scopuli area of the Mars' South Pole is the subglacial liquid water generated by local geothermal heating (src: press, pub, full-text). Mars is, thus, contrary to popular belief held so far, geothermally active. Another big surprise for orthodox science, another confirmation of my hypotheses.
A recent study confirms that the structure of the model in Fig. 1 is representative for a significant part of Mars. The structure has been detected on Mars' equator (src), and the average thickness of the feature is close to predicted (1500 m). The dust layer on top of the ice, however, seems to be bigger, 300-600 m in thickness. I wouldn't thus interpret it all as img crust. It is possible that a thinner layer of somewhat different composition exists on the bottom of this deposit. In that case this deeper layer would be an older feature, representing the hypothesized img crust, while the material above may be a later deposited dust, which could be inhibiting the function of proposed hair here. Indeed, it appears that the average thickness of detected ice layer is 1500 m, equal to the predicted average total of img mantle and img crust.
There are microbes living currently on Earth, which can survive pressure of 6 mbar, temperature of -60°C and 95% CO2 atmosphere of Mars. These may be considered as a precursor or
a consequence of phase shift in time.
Note that, at the time of compression, Mars had significant water content in its hydrosphere. The compression must have resulted in strong crustal hydration, creation of hydrates and perhaps
other clathrates.
2021.03.17: Research shows that a significant amount of Mars' water (up to 99%) was not lost to space, but was rather stored in crust.
2024.08.23: A layer of porous rock saturated with liquid water appears to exist at a depth between about 11.5 and 20 km (which translates to 1-2 km of water) beneath the surface within 50 km of the InSight lander. If this is representative of the whole crust, it is more than enough to contain all the hypothesized water of ancient Martian oceans.
At time of compression, the troposphere contained mainly CO2, water and dust. During solidification some CO2 dissolved in water but some remained on top
as CO2 ice (dry ice). Over time, the layer of pure CO2 ice sublimated, except on poles where, due to lower temperatures, remains preserved (renewed).
At the point of solidification, atmospheric discharges were at maximum. Induced heat of discharges alone could have created initial channels connecting the top surface with the crust.
Plants can live at these pressures and it is expectable for them to grow higher in high CO2 conditions.
Since, at the point of strong evolution, CO2 is abundant - trees evolve, to reach extreme heights, extremely small width due to high pressure and life in dark environments
due to polluted atmosphere.
With a suitable catalyst, UV radiation is breaking water molecules in liquid water, making photosynthesis obsolete - the plant simply collects free radicals from water.
The plant forms the symbiosis (or fusion) with microbes, such that it delivers hydrogen/oxygen to them. In return, microbes clean the plant by processing dead cells - taking carbon, and
releasing methane/carbon-dioxide. Effectively, the tree evolved to an ion conductor (electrolyte) in electrolysis.
There's a good possibility that ancestors of microbes/plants living there today have been engineered by Mars' humans to battle the atmospheric CO2 increase, just as we are doing
today on Earth.
Plants also deliver water from ground to atmosphere, so they might be creating water buffers at upper layers.
This biosphere thus has a separate carbon/oxygen cycle from the abiotic one in the atmosphere with which it only seasonally interacts.
Because the visible surface on Mars may generally not be the surface where complex lifeforms ever lived, one cannot expect to find any evidence of such life there.
But, below the ice (condensed troposphere), in the real crust of Mars one can expect to find both, extant and extinct life (even humanoid fossils, although these may be harder to find due
to short-term species significance).
Of course, below the crust, particularly below lithosphere, Mars should be full of diverse life.
Overall, the near-surface biosphere is only a small part of life spreading from the atmosphere to the core, forming a homo.omega individual.
2024.08.23: A layer of porous rock saturated with liquid water appears to exist at a depth between about 11.5 and 20 km (which translates to 1-2 km of water) beneath the surface within 50 km of the InSight lander. If this is representative of the whole crust, it is more than enough to contain all the hypothesized water of ancient Martian oceans.
Fig. 2: The solution
A copper electrode with gold plated contact was added, to be used as cathode:
Fig. 3: Solution with cathode added
After freezing on -23°C for 18 hours, the copper anode and water were added to the solution:
Fig. 4: Solution after freezing
A couple of minutes after exposing the solution to +22°C room atmosphere and connecting the electrodes to a 4.0 V DC source, the voltage was observed to be dropping (the instrument doesn't
detect changes below 1 mV).
Average temperature on Mars is -63°C, but the temperature can go up to 30°C in summer.
Note that due to extremely low pressure, temperature on Mars doesn't feel as cold as on Earth (-70°C on Mars would feel as -34°C on Earth), making maintenance of temperature less challenging
for complex organisms.
After 20 minutes the oxidation of copper on the anode was becoming clearly visible (to naked eye). By now some ice on the edges melted and small amount of water was now
under the ice.
The cathode, however, was still inside the ice and hydrogen was not coming out, indicating that protons (hydrogen ions) are being delivered to cathode through ice and that hydrogen
gas is building up inside the ice.
After 45 minutes bubbles of hydrogen were observed to come out of the bottom of the ice. The bubbles were large and the bubbling was not continuous, further confirming the buildup
inside the ice.
Scaling this to Mars, a required voltage for the same current would be:
- although I have used 4 V, electrolysis would occur on lower voltages too, even more efficiently,
- the possibility of proton transfer is important in this case - not the strength of current,
- available cross-section area for proton current is very large on Mars,
- I have used freshwater with no significant salt content - salty hair in the solution would increase conductivity,
- ice layers on Mars could be, in places, much thinner than 1.5 km.